The Order and the 1980s Violence, 1983 to 1987

The Aryan Nations compound (lesson 7) was a place to hold meetings. The Order was something different: a gang that robbed armored cars, killed a man and was destroyed by federal prosecutions within two years of its founding. Their geography overlaps and their members overlap, but a writer who treats them as one organization gets the record wrong.

The Order

According to Wikipedia and to HistoryLink, Robert Jay Mathews founded The Order in late September 1983 on his property near Metaline Falls, Washington, where members reportedly trained. The Spokesman-Review's timeline places the founding about three months after a June 1983 Aryan Nations rally in Spokane, where Mathews was involved in a confrontation.¹²³ Mathews had visited the Hayden Lake compound many times. He was born in Marfa, Texas, in 1953 and had moved to Metaline Falls in 1974, according to Wikipedia.⁴ The Seattle Times's 1994 retrospective reports that he grew impatient with the compound's talk and wanted action, and a retired FBI agent who worked from Hayden, Wayne Manis, said Butler favored politics.⁵⁶ A Wikipedia statement that Mathews formed the group after a 1983 congress at which Louis Beam and others declared war on the federal government rests on Wikipedia alone and is not repeated here (lesson 7).⁷ The group's planned crimes for 1983 and 1984 included murder, arson and robbery.⁷

On July 19, 1984 members robbed a Brink's armored truck near Ukiah, California, taking about $3.6 million, according to the Ninth Circuit opinion and the Seattle Times.⁸⁵

The murder of Alan Berg

On June 18, 1984, the Jewish radio talk-show host Alan Berg was murdered in front of his home in Denver, according to the Ninth Circuit opinion and the Justice Department bulletin. Wikipedia attributes the killing to Bruce Pierce, assisted by other members, and notes that no one has been charged with Berg's murder itself; the SPLC likewise says no one was charged with the shooting.⁸⁹¹¹⁰ At the 1987 civil-rights trial, the government's theory was that Pierce fired the shots and David Lane drove the car.¹¹ Berg was number two on the group's hit list, according to Wikipedia.¹ The Wassmuth Center's commentary lists the murder of Berg alongside armed robberies and the bombing of a Boise synagogue as the Order's mid-1980s crimes.¹²

The end of Mathews, and the courts

In the fall of 1984 the FBI closed in. On October 18, 1984 agents raided the house of Gary Yarbrough near Sandpoint, Idaho, and seized the weapon later linked to the Berg killing; on November 24, 1984 Yarbrough jumped from a second-floor window at a Portland motel, where Mathews was shot in the hand and fled, according to the Seattle Times's 1994 retrospective and agent Norm Brown.⁵¹³ Mathews was then cornered in a rented house near Greenbank, on Whidbey Island, Washington. HistoryLink and the Seattle Times describe a standoff of roughly 35 hours; agents fired M-79 flares around 6:30 p.m. on Saturday, December 8, the house burned, and Mathews's remains were found Sunday morning.²⁵ Most sources date his death December 8, 1984; the FBI's Law Enforcement Bulletin and the Spokesman-Review timeline say December 7, the day the siege began.¹⁴³ Some summaries, including Wikipedia, call it a "two-hour shoot-out"; that understates the siege. Prosecutor David E. "Gene" Wilson said the Whidbey Island events "congealed it all" for the government's case, according to the Seattle Times.⁵

The prosecutions came in two main rounds, followed by the Arkansas trial below. In Seattle, 23 people were indicted under the federal racketeering statute (RICO); 12 pleaded guilty before trial and 10 were convicted at trial, according to the Ninth Circuit opinion that lists ten appellants and the FBI's Seattle history.⁸¹⁵ On February 11, 1986, Judge Walter McGovern sentenced the group to terms ranging from 40 to 100 years; Pierce received 100 years and Lane 40, according to the Jewish Telegraphic Agency.¹⁶ In November 1987 a federal jury in Denver convicted two men, Lane and Pierce, of violating Berg's civil rights. Two co-defendants, Richard Scutari and Jean Craig, were acquitted, according to the Jewish Telegraphic Agency and the Justice Department bulletin, which says "two codefendants" were acquitted. Some summaries say three were convicted; the sources read for this update say two.¹¹⁹

The sentence totals need care. In the Berg case, UPI reported in February 1988 that Lane and Pierce were sentenced to 150 years each, and the SPLC says Lane's 150 years ran consecutively to his Seattle term. That makes Lane's total 190 years (40 plus 150). The SPLC statement is about Lane; if Pierce's Berg term also ran consecutively to his Seattle term, his total would be 250 (100 plus 150), but no source read says so. Wikipedia gives 252 for Pierce; no other source read for this update does, so his total is unresolved until the federal judgments are pulled. The two figures are cumulative across two separate cases, not a single sentence.¹⁷¹⁰

What is documented about Boise

The Wassmuth Center's commentary says The Order bombed a Boise synagogue, and Wikipedia says The Order bombed the only synagogue in Boise but gives no date.¹²¹ A 2025 FaVS News commentary identifies the building as the Ahavath Israel temple and says no one was ever charged with that bombing.¹⁸ The FBI's Law Enforcement Bulletin of 1987 lists a synagogue bombing among The Order's crimes, and the Spokesman-Review timeline places it before the Berg killing of June 18, 1984.¹⁴³ One online chronology gives April 29, 1984; that entry was seen only as a snippet and is not confirmed here. A writer who needs the date, the damage and the court findings should pull the Idaho Statesman for April and May 1984 and the case files; they are not in the sources used here.

Idaho places in the record

Several Idaho locations appear in the court record and in news reports. Gary Yarbrough lived near Sandpoint, and his house was raided on October 18, 1984 (above). Andrew Barnhill rented a house at LaClede, Idaho, that was searched, according to the Ninth Circuit opinion. An Order counterfeiting operation is also said to have used a press at the Aryan Nations compound, according to the ADL's archived profile, an advocacy source; this lesson treats that as unconfirmed until a court record or agent account is found. Jean Craig, acquitted in the Berg case, is named in the Ninth Circuit opinion in connection with conduct in Boise on July 21, 1984.⁸⁵¹⁹ Because attendance at the compound is not membership in The Order, none of these facts shows that Butler directed the gang, and the Fort Smith jury acquitted him of the sedition charge in 1988.

The Order II and the 1986 bombings

The Order II, according to Wikipedia, was a separate group that operated only in Idaho. Wikipedia lists attacks by the group in 1986, including a bomb sent to a Hayden Lake businessman and bombings in Hayden and Coeur d'Alene, and says it was led by David and Deborah Dorr, former Aryan Nations members.¹ Other records correct and narrow that description:

• Who led it. UPI reported on October 9, 1986 that David Dorr led the group, with Edward Hawley, Olive Hawley and Robert Pires, 22, of Maryland. It said Deborah Dorr was not charged. Deborah Dorr appears elsewhere as Butler's publicist; that role comes from a television news segment and was not re-checked here.²⁰
• Whether they were Aryan Nations members. UPI called David Dorr an Aryan Nations security officer. Butler said the Dorrs were not "official members" of his church, according to the Seattle Weekly. The Idaho Court of Appeals describes the defendants as members of "Bruder Schweigen," which it calls a splinter of Aryan Nations. The sources therefore disagree, and this lesson reports the disagreement.²⁰²¹²²
• What the court found. In State v. Dorr the Idaho Court of Appeals records that Dorr and Hawley built and exploded pipe bombs in Coeur d'Alene in September 1986 and pleaded guilty in April 1989 to three counts of explosion of a building.²²
• The Wassmuth bombing. The Wassmuth Center commentary records that Father Bill Wassmuth's home was bombed in 1986. The date is September 15, 1986, shortly before midnight, according to the Coeur d'Alene Press, the Seattle Times obituary of Wassmuth and the Christian Science Monitor; Wikipedia says September 16. The Monitor reports further bombs in town on September 29, 1986. The sources read for this update do not say which of the Idaho bombings the pleas covered, and the module does not assign any specific bombing to a named person beyond what the court opinion states.^12232425
• How local officials read it. Undersheriff Larry Broadbent of Kootenai County told the Monitor that "if there's a nonresponse to their activities, they see it as implied consent."²⁵ Wassmuth, after the bomb, called it "an attempt to remodel my house," according to the Coeur d'Alene Press, and said he was not intimidated.²³

The useful distinction for readers is between three things. The Aryan Nations was a church and training compound at Hayden Lake. The Order was a gang formed in 1983 from the white-supremacist circle of the Pacific Northwest. The Order II was a smaller Idaho group. The courts convicted individuals of specific crimes. Collective labels are shorthand and should be used with that in mind.

The Fort Smith trial and The Order

In April 1987 a federal grand jury indicted Butler and other white-supremacist leaders on a charge of seditious conspiracy. The group included men connected to The Order, among them Richard Scutari and Andrew Barnhill, and the movement figures Louis Beam and Robert E. Miles. The trial ran in Fort Smith, Arkansas, from February 16 to April 7, 1988, before Judge Morris Arnold, with Steven N. Snyder prosecuting. The government called 113 witnesses and the defense 79; the jury of twelve white jurors acquitted 13 defendants on April 7, 1988, and charges against Robert Smalley were dismissed in March.²⁶ Judge Arnold told the jurors the case was about acts, not beliefs, according to UPI.²⁷

The acquittals did not undo the convictions in the Seattle and Denver cases, which were for specific crimes by individuals. They do mean that no jury ever convicted Butler or the other Fort Smith defendants of the conspiracy the government described. Lesson 7 covers Butler's part in the trial.

What the court records show, and what they do not

The convictions are the firm ground: ten defendants convicted at trial in Seattle, two convicted in the Berg civil-rights case, and a cumulative 190 years for Lane (40 plus 150, by arithmetic from the Seattle and Denver reports) and a Pierce total that is still unresolved (250 by the same arithmetic if his terms also ran consecutively; 252 in Wikipedia). The table below sets the four proceedings side by side.^8916112622

Case	Court and date	Defendants and result (as reported)
Seattle racketeering (RICO)	U.S. District Court, Seattle; sentences February 11, 1986 (Judge McGovern); appeals decided by the Ninth Circuit on July 6, 1988	23 indicted; 12 pleaded guilty before trial; 10 convicted at trial; sentences 40 to 100 years
Berg civil-rights case	Federal court, Denver; verdict November 1987; Tenth Circuit decision August 25, 1989	Lane and Pierce convicted; Scutari and Craig acquitted; 150 years each reported for Lane and Pierce
Fort Smith sedition trial	Federal court, Fort Smith, Arkansas; February 16 to April 7, 1988 (Judge Arnold)	13 defendants acquitted, including Butler; charges against one defendant dismissed in March
Idaho pipe bombs	Idaho state court; guilty pleas April 1989; Court of Appeals opinion 1991	David Dorr and Edward Hawley pleaded guilty to three counts of explosion of a building

Sources: Ninth Circuit (852 F.2d 1522), Justice Department bulletin, Jewish Telegraphic Agency, Encyclopedia of Arkansas, State v. Dorr. Pull the dockets before quoting a count or a sentence.

The sources gathered here still do not give the trial dates for Seattle, the counts of each conviction, the full list of other defendants or the details of the Boise synagogue bombing. Anything beyond the convictions, such as who drove, who paid for what or who ordered a given attack, belongs to the trial record and should be quoted from it. Congressional hearings on The Order and an FBI Vault file for the group were searched for and not located.

In their own words and in the record

These items come from defendants, from people who worked the cases and from reporters. Each is labeled by who is speaking. Quotations are short and attributed. Items marked "not read" are listed so readers know they exist.

Statements by members and associates

• At sentencing, February 1986 (reported by the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, a single source). Gary Yarbrough told the court, "This was a political trial." David Lane said he had given everything he was for his cause.¹⁶
• To the court, as the SPLC reports it. Lane said he did not recognize a government that, in his words, aimed to exterminate his race. The SPLC is an advocacy organization quoting a court exchange.¹⁰
• A prison letter, December 2017 (quoted by the SPLC). Yarbrough called Mathews "a true hero of his folk" and told the federal Parole Commission, "I am not a white supremacist." The second statement is his own claim and is not a finding.²⁸
• David Dorr, in a magazine interview (Seattle Weekly, single source). Dorr said, "The more I checked, the more I realized Parson Butler was right," describing how he came to the movement.²¹
• Mathews's last letter. Wikipedia quotes him as writing that it was time to "quit being the hunted and become the hunter." The letter's full text was not located, so the phrase is reported at second hand.⁴
• Butler on Hayden Lake. The ADL's archived profile quotes him calling the compound the "international headquarters of the White race." The ADL is an advocacy organization.¹⁹
• Memoir by a former member who became an informant. Thomas Martinez's Brotherhood of Murder (1988) and a Fresh Air interview that April are first-hand accounts from inside the gang. They are the best first-hand source for how recruits were treated and are not read for this lesson.²⁹
• Letters by a convicted member. Unbroken Warrior (2011) compiles letters by Richard Scutari. It was published by sympathetic editors and is not read for this lesson.³⁰

Accounts by agents, prosecutors and reporters

• Agents. Wayne Manis, who moved to the Hayden area in February 1984 and later wrote a memoir, The Street Agent, said Butler favored politics. Tom McDaniel called Mathews charismatic in a 2017 CNN piece (single source), and Donald Wofford also spoke to CNN. The Spokesman-Review profiled agent Norm Brown's career, including the Order investigation, when he retired in 2008.⁶³¹¹³
• Prosecutors and agents in 1994. On the tenth anniversary of Whidbey Island the Seattle Times interviewed agent George Fisher and prosecutor David E. Wilson, who said the siege "congealed it all."⁵
• The FBI's own article. The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin of October 1987 surveyed 1980s domestic terrorism for police readers and is an official, adverse source.¹⁴
• Two reporters' book. Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt's The Silent Brotherhood (1989), according to its Wikipedia page, rests on interviews with six Order members, relatives, Butler and agents. It was not read for this lesson.³²
• The local response. The Christian Science Monitor in January 1987 is the best contemporaneous account of the Coeur d'Alene reaction to the bombings.²⁵

The balance of the record is lopsided. Most first-hand statements by members come from court hearings, prison correspondence quoted by advocacy groups, or sympathetic compilers, and few interviews are available on the public web. Readers should weigh each quotation by its channel.

People and personalities

This section sets out who the main figures were and what the record says about how they acted and how others dealt with them. A conviction is stated only where a court record or a news report of one is cited, and acquittals are given the same weight as convictions.

• Robert Jay Mathews (1953 to December 1984). Founder of The Order. Born in Marfa, Texas; moved to Metaline Falls in 1974. He visited the compound but grew impatient with its talk, according to the Seattle Times. He was killed during the Whidbey Island siege. He was never tried.⁴⁵
• Bruce Pierce. The government's theory is that he shot Berg. He received 100 years in Seattle and a reported 150 years in the Berg case; his total is unresolved (252 in Wikipedia, 250 by arithmetic).¹¹¹⁶
• David Lane (1938 to May 28, 2007). Government theory: the driver in the Berg killing. Forty years in Seattle plus 150. Wrote the slogans known as the "14 Words" and the "88 Precepts," according to the SPLC.¹⁶¹⁰
• Gary Yarbrough. Lived near Sandpoint; his house was raided October 18, 1984; he jumped from a Portland motel window on November 24, 1984 and was later captured. In 2017 he wrote from prison praising Mathews.⁵²⁸
• Richard Scutari. Order security chief according to the SPLC; acquitted in the Berg civil-rights trial in 1987 and a Fort Smith defendant in 1988; the SPLC reported his release from prison in January 2025.¹¹³³
• Andrew Barnhill. Rented the LaClede, Idaho house that was searched; a Fort Smith defendant.⁸
• Thomas Martinez. Arrested June 29, 1984 for counterfeiting, then became an FBI informant, according to Wikipedia and the Seattle Times.⁵
• David Dorr and Edward Hawley. Pleaded guilty to explosion counts in 1989 (above). UPI described Dorr as a former San Jose deputy and as an Aryan Nations security officer; Butler disputed that they were members.²⁰²²
• Deborah Dorr and Olive Hawley. UPI reported that Deborah Dorr was not charged. Olive Hawley is named among those arrested in 1986.²⁰
• Judges and prosecutors. Walter McGovern sentenced the Seattle defendants. Morris Arnold presided at Fort Smith, with Steven N. Snyder for the government. Ronald Howen is named in the Ninth Circuit opinion as a special assistant U.S. attorney in Boise.¹⁶²⁶⁸
• Agents. Wayne Manis, Tom McDaniel, Donald Wofford, Norm Brown and George Fisher worked on the cases; their recollections are listed above.⁶³¹¹³⁵
• Bill Wassmuth (died August 27, 2002) and Larry Broadbent. The Coeur d'Alene priest whose home was bombed and the Kootenai County undersheriff who spoke to the Monitor; see above.²⁴²⁵

No source read for this update records any interaction between The Order's members and the Task Force in Coeur d'Alene before the bombings. The documented contact between Mathews and Butler is that Mathews visited the compound and left unsatisfied, in the Seattle Times's account.

Where each organization stood in 1986

• Aryan Nations: the compound and annual congress at Hayden Lake, still operating.
• The Order: destroyed. Mathews dead since December 1984 and the members convicted.
• The Order II: a separate Idaho group led, according to UPI, by David Dorr (Deborah Dorr was not charged); Butler denied that the Dorrs were official members. Tie any attack to a person only through the court record: Dorr and Hawley pleaded guilty to explosion counts in Coeur d'Alene in 1989.

Source notes for reporters

• Use "convicted" only with a court record. "Linked to," "associated with" and "attended meetings of" carry different meanings.
• Cite the sentence lengths for Lane and Pierce from the federal judgments, not from the secondary summary. The figures are cumulative across the Seattle and Denver cases; Pierce's total (250 or 252) is unresolved. The Tenth Circuit decision is the place to look (reported at 883 F.2d 1484 in the research notes; confirm the citation).
• Write "two convicted, two acquitted" for the Berg civil-rights trial and "13 acquitted" for Fort Smith.
• The Whidbey Island siege lasted roughly 35 hours; do not call it a two-hour shoot-out.

Learn more

• U.S. Department of Justice: Search for the federal prosecutions of The Order.
• Southern Poverty Law Center: Profiles of Aryan Nations and The Order; attribute them as SPLC's findings.
• United States v. Yarbrough (Ninth Circuit, 1988): The appeals opinion in the Seattle case.
• State v. Dorr (Idaho Court of Appeals, 1991): The record on the Coeur d'Alene pipe bombs.
• HistoryLink, Robert Jay Mathews killed during FBI siege: A state encyclopedia essay on Whidbey Island.

Notes

1. "The Order (white supremacist group)," Wikipedia, on Mathews, the Berg murder, the Whidbey Island shootout, the RICO convictions and the Order II. Read it online. Verify sentences against the federal judgments. ↩
2. Daryl McClary, "Robert Jay Mathews killed during FBI siege on Whidbey Island Dec. 8, 1984," HistoryLink essay 7921. State encyclopedia essay. Read it online. ↩
3. Bill Morlin, "Domestic Terrorism and Aryan Nations Timeline," Spokesman-Review, August 20, 2000. Newspaper timeline; it dates the Whidbey siege to December 7 and orders the Boise synagogue bombing before June 18, 1984. Read it online. ↩
4. "Robert Jay Mathews," Wikipedia, on his early life and the text of his final letter as quoted there. A tertiary source; the letter itself was not located. Read it online. ↩
5. "Death of the Order: a look back at Whidbey Island siege," Seattle Times, December 11, 1994. Ten-year retrospective newspaper report quoting agents and prosecutors. Read it online. ↩
6. "New film tells story of Coeur d'Alene FBI agent who hunted violent white supremacists in the 1980s," East Idaho News, December 2024, on agent Wayne Manis. Read it online. ↩
7. "Aryan Nations," Wikipedia, on the 1983 congress and the formation of The Order. Read it online. ↩
8. United States v. Yarbrough, 852 F.2d 1522 (9th Cir. July 6, 1988). A federal appeals court opinion (primary record) on the appeals of ten Order defendants; it describes the Berg murder allegations, the Ukiah robbery and the Idaho locations named in the indictment. Read it online. ↩
9. U.S. Department of Justice, United States Attorneys' Bulletin, vol. 37, no. 10 (October 1989), on United States v. Lane and United States v. Pierce (10th Cir. Aug. 25, 1989). Government publication (primary record) describing the Berg civil-rights convictions and the acquittal of two co-defendants. Read it online. ↩
10. Southern Poverty Law Center, extremist profile of David Lane, on his consecutive sentences, his writings and the Berg killing. An advocacy source, cited from this module's research notes; the page should be re-checked before quoting. ↩
11. "Two convicted for violating rights in murder of Alan Berg," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, November 19, 1987. Wire summary of the Denver verdict and the government's theory of the killing. Read it online. ↩
12. "Refusing to let hate have the final word: the hidden history of human rights in Idaho," Idaho Capital Sun, January 8, 2025 (commentary). Read it online. ↩
13. "After storied career, agent retires," Spokesman-Review, November 28, 2008, on FBI agent Norm Brown. Read it online. ↩
14. John W. Harris Jr., "Domestic Terrorism in the 1980's," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 56(11), October 1987. An FBI-authored article, so a law-enforcement perspective; it lists a synagogue bombing among The Order's crimes and gives December 7 for Mathews's death. Read it online. ↩
15. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Seattle Field Office history. Government web page, on The Order, Mathews and Whidbey Island. The page is a short official summary; some wording on Mathews's death is not repeated here. Read it online. ↩
16. "Neo-Nazi gang given prison terms ranging from 40 to 100 years," Jewish Telegraphic Agency, February 11, 1986. Wire summary of the Seattle sentencing and of statements by defendants. Single source for the quotations from the sentencing hearing. Read it online. ↩
17. UPI report of February 1988 on the sentencing of David Lane and Bruce Pierce in the Berg civil-rights case, as recorded in this module's research notes. The report itself was not re-opened for this lesson; pull it before quoting the figure. ↩
18. Austin Albanese, "When Boise Chose Belonging Over Hate," FaVS News, November 12, 2025. Commentary on the Ahavath Israel synagogue bombing; it states that no one was charged and gives no exact date. Read it online. ↩
19. Anti-Defamation League, "Aryan Nations/Church of Jesus Christ Christian," archived profile (PDF). The ADL is an advocacy organization; its statements are attributed. Read it online. ↩
20. "A small band of white supremacists arrested," UPI, October 9, 1986. Wire report on the arrests in the Idaho bombing investigation. Read it online. ↩
21. "He was not following orders," Seattle Weekly (c. 1999; the page date is uncertain), on David and Deborah Dorr and Butler. Read it online. ↩
22. State v. Dorr, 120 Idaho 441, 816 P.2d 998 (Ct. App. 1991). An Idaho Court of Appeals opinion (primary record) on the pipe-bomb guilty pleas. Read it online. ↩
23. "Bomb blast reverberates 35 years later," Coeur d'Alene Press, September 17, 2021. Local newspaper retrospective on the Wassmuth bombing. Read it online. ↩
24. "Bill Wassmuth: Rights activist took on Aryan Nations," Seattle Times, August 29, 2002. Newspaper obituary. Read it online. ↩
25. "Idaho town fights back," Christian Science Monitor, January 13, 1987. Contemporaneous newspaper report on the September 1986 bombings and on Undersheriff Larry Broadbent. Read it online. ↩
26. "Fort Smith Sedition Trial of 1988," Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Reference entry on the trial. Read it online. ↩
27. "Jury seated in sedition trial," UPI, February 17, 1988. Wire report from the start of the Fort Smith trial. Read it online. ↩
28. "'Hail Bob Mathews': Member of The Order reminisces from federal prison," SPLC Hatewatch, December 18, 2017. The SPLC is an advocacy organization; the quotations are the prisoner's own words as the SPLC printed them. Read it online. ↩
29. Thomas Martinez, Brotherhood of Murder (1988), and the Fresh Air interview of April 29, 1988. A first-hand account by a former Order member who became an FBI informant. Neither was read for this lesson. Read it online. ↩
30. Unbroken Warrior: The Richard Scutari Letters, compiled by Soderman and Holappa (2011), cited in the Wikipedia bibliography on The Order. A compilation sympathetic to its subject; not read for this lesson. ↩
31. "How the FBI smashed white supremacist group The Order," CNN, August 17, 2017. News feature built on recollections of retired agents. Read it online. ↩
32. Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt, The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground (1989), as described on its Wikipedia page. The book was not read for this lesson. Read it online. ↩
33. "Neo-Nazi Order member released from prison after radicalizing terrorist group," SPLC Hatewatch, December 5, 2024. Advocacy source. Read it online. ↩