Mines, Mills and Martial Law, 1892 to 1907

Before there was a Communist Party, an Idaho Socialist ticket or a Nazi compound at Hayden Lake, there were mines. The first great test of how Idaho would treat organized radicals came in the Silver Valley of the Coeur d'Alene mining district, where hardrock miners, mine owners, hired detectives, two governors and the United States Army met in 1892 and again in 1899. Everything later in this module sits on top of that history, so it comes first.

One warning belongs at the top. The word "radical" covers a wide range. A Populist who wanted a graduated income tax, a union miner who wanted $3.50 a day, a Socialist who wanted public ownership of industry and a man who planted a bomb are not the same person, and the lessons that follow will not treat them as one.

The world before the strikes: Populists, anarchists and small unions

An Idaho labor history in the Idaho Post Register records that in the 1890s "anarchism and various forms of socialism were common" in Idaho and Western labor camps, and that the Populist Party, which was pro-labor, regularly won statewide offices, congressional seats and presidential electoral votes. The Populist platform called for a progressive income tax, abolition of the "Pinkerton system" of private detectives, and public ownership of banks and railroads.¹ The Idaho State Historical Society's list of United States senators shows one concrete result: Henry Heitfeld, elected as a Populist on January 28, 1897, served in the Senate from March 4, 1897 to March 3, 1903.²

Hardrock miners began forming small local unions in the 1890s and demanded $3.50 a day.¹ Mine owners answered by forming a Mine Owners Association and hiring spies from the Thiel Detective Service Company and the Pinkerton National Detective Agency.¹ That detail matters: the radicals of the Coeur d'Alene did not meet a neutral government. They met an organized employer side that had its own informants inside the unions.

1892: the first Coeur d'Alene war

In 1892 many of the district's mining unions struck. The owners brought in replacement workers, and strikers drove them off. On July 11, 1892, gunfire broke out at two mines, the Frisco and the Gem (the accounts of the Gem fight differ; see below). Governor Norman Willey declared martial law, called out the Idaho National Guard and asked President Benjamin Harrison for federal troops, who came. About 600 men were confined in "bull pens" without charges, up to 350 at once; most were held about two months, and all were free by the end of March 1893.¹³

Where the accounts of July 1892 disagree

An earlier version of this lesson said the miners prevailed at the Frisco and the guards at the Gem, following the Post Register. Two other accounts say the union took both. The table sets the three side by side.

Source	Type and stance	What it says about July 11, 1892
Idaho Post Register labor history	Newspaper summary; neutral	Miners prevailed at the Frisco; guards prevailed at the Gem
Earl Clark, "Shoot-Out in Burke Canyon," American Heritage, 1971	Popular history; neutral	Gunfire at the Gem, three union men dead, and the union forced the guards to surrender4
Wikipedia, "1892 Coeur d'Alene labor strike"	Encyclopedia; neutral	Management ordered surrender and the strikers took both mines; about 150 guards and strikebreakers were marched out5

This lesson now follows the two accounts that agree: the strikers took both mines, and the Frisco mill was blown up with powder sent down a flume. Accounts differ on how many people died. Treat the question of who won at the Gem as settled only by a primary account, such as the July 16, 23 and 30, 1892 issues of the Coeur d'Alene Press on Chronicling America, which were not opened for this lesson. A Wallace Free Press editorial of 1892, quoted by American Heritage, put it this way: "Those who live by the sword shall die by the sword."⁴

The spy inside the union later told the story himself. Charles Siringo, a Pinkerton operative, became recording secretary of the Gem Miners' Union in 1892 while reporting to the owners, according to American Heritage and Wikipedia, and after the fighting he helped identify leaders.⁴⁵ George Pettibone, the Gem justice of the peace and first president of the Gem union, was convicted for the mill dynamiting (Wikipedia describes contempt and conspiracy) and served eight months.⁵ Siringo later wrote A Cowboy Detective (1912) and The Two Evil Isms (1915); the Post Register says that in the second he called the Pinkertons the "most corrupt institution of the century," a wording not checked here against the book.¹ Siringo is a witness with an obvious bias after the fact. His account is an example of how an insider's testimony gets used in this history: it is a source to be checked against court records, not an answer. One more claim is single-source: American Heritage says William Borah prosecuted Pettibone in 1892, a point no other source gathered here confirms.

1899: Bunker Hill and the destruction of the mill

Seven years later, workers at the Bunker Hill Mine in Kellogg tried to organize, and the owners again used spies and threatened to fire union members.¹ In April 1899, members of the Western Federation of Miners destroyed the Bunker Hill Mining Company's mill at Wardner. The Post Register account says union members seized a train and used about 3,000 pounds of dynamite.¹⁶

Governor Frank Steunenberg declared martial law. The Idaho National Guard was in the Philippines, so he asked President William McKinley for federal troops.⁶ Wikipedia says martial law stayed in force through the end of his term, but that is a single-source claim and is not repeated as fact here. Better supported accounts say federal troops left in November 1899 (Douglas Linder's Famous Trials chronology) and that a permit system, under which men had to renounce the union to hold a mine job, lasted into 1900 (historian William Gaboury, 1967).⁷³ Union supporters considered this a betrayal. The Post Register account calls the outcome "a decisive defeat for Idaho unions," followed by blacklisting, and says unions did not regain strength until World War I.¹

After the mill: the permit system and the House inquiry

The state moved against officials as well as miners. Shoshone County's Populist sheriff, James D. Young, and two county commissioners, William Boyle and William Stimson, were arrested and removed after the Wardner raid, and Judge George Stewart ruled in the matter on July 10, 1899 (Gaboury).³ Steunenberg also charged Edward Boyce, president of the Western Federation of Miners, with conspiracy; Boyce denied it. Years later Harry Orchard claimed Boyce had approved the 1899 attack. That is Orchard's self-reported claim, from a man the prosecution used as its witness, and Gaboury reports it as a claim.³

The permit system was run by a physician, Dr. Hugh France. In 1909 Bartlett Sinclair, who had served as Steunenberg's personal representative in Shoshone County, praised France in a Spokesman-Review piece (Oct. 31, 1909) that is listed in a University of Idaho reprint index; the text itself was not read for this lesson.⁸

The House Committee on Military Affairs investigated the use of troops from February 20 to May 8, 1900, hearing about 32 witnesses, and its report is House Report 1 of the 56th Congress, ordered printed in June 1900. A summary of the report says the committee found the troops lawfully sent and described labor's criticisms as a "misapprehension or deliberate distortion." The scan of the report was garbled when read, so confirm that wording against the PDF before quoting it.⁹ The union press told it differently. The Railroad Telegrapher of April 1900 ran "Idaho's Disgrace," with the headline "Martyrs of the Bull Pen," and said Paul Corcoran, a Burke union secretary, had been convicted and sentenced to 17 years.¹⁰ That is an advocacy publication, and the sentence has not been verified in a court record. The government's own finding and the union's charge should both be reported, each labeled.

December 30, 1905: the Caldwell bomb

Steunenberg had left office. On December 30, 1905, he was killed by a bomb rigged to the gate outside his home on Dearborn Street in Caldwell.⁶ Harry Orchard, a former Western Federation of Miners member, was arrested in Caldwell shortly afterward. Pinkerton agent James McParland led the investigation, and after solitary confinement and interrogation Orchard signed a 64-page typed confession in which he described years as a paid assassin and bomber and claimed about 17 other killings.⁶ The number is his own claim: Famous Trials gives 17, and other sources say 16 or "seventeen or more."⁷

Orchard then named the union's leaders. He said the Federation's general secretary, William "Big Bill" Haywood, its president, Charles Moyer, and a third official, George Pettibone, had ordered the killing.⁶ The three were seized in Denver on February 17, 1906, and brought to Idaho. "Kidnapped" is the union side's word for the removal, and the Post Register summary repeats it for the Pinkertons.¹ The U.S. Supreme Court ruled 8 to 1 on December 3, 1906, in Pettibone v. Nichols, that the removal did not violate the prisoners' federal rights (vote and date from Famous Trials; the opinion text was not read for this lesson).⁷¹¹ Both the label and the ruling belong in an honest account.

January and February 1906: from confession to arrest

The sequence, from Linder's Famous Trials chronology, shows how quickly the case moved. Idaho hired the Pinkerton detective James McParland on January 7, 1906, and he was in Boise two days later. On January 22 he met Orchard and suggested leniency if Orchard would name the men who had recruited him. Orchard finished his confession on February 1, naming Haywood, Moyer and Pettibone. On the night of February 17 the three were seized in Denver, denied lawyers and family, and put on a train that kept moving until it reached the Idaho line. Clarence Darrow agreed in December 1906 to defend them.⁷ Wikipedia's page on Frank Steunenberg dates the arrests to February 1908, which is a mistake; the contemporary dates are February 1906.

The trials of 1907

Haywood's trial in Boise ran through the summer of 1907; the transcript volumes in the University of Minnesota's Darrow collection run from June 4 to July 30.¹² Senator William Borah, an Idaho Republican, prosecuted, and James H. Hawley led the state's lawyers. Clarence Darrow defended, with Edmund F. Richardson as co-counsel.⁷ The Morning Oregonian of June 19, 1907 reports Orchard's cross-examination of June 18, including letters he wrote to his wife to suggest he had gone to Alaska (read through a summary).¹³ Wikipedia gives figures of 26 hours of cross-examination, 80 more prosecution witnesses and more than 100 defense witnesses; those numbers were not confirmed in a primary record and are given here only as Wikipedia's.⁶ Wikipedia also reports that Darrow's closing argument drew harsh criticism, including from the Chicago Tribune; the Tribune piece was not located. Most observers expected a conviction. The jury received the case on July 28 and acquitted Haywood on July 29, 1907. Pettibone was tried separately and acquitted in January 1908, and the charges against Moyer were dropped the same month.⁷

The state had earlier tried Steve Adams, another man Orchard named. Adams repudiated his confession; Darrow defended him in February 1907 against Hawley, and the jury hung.⁷ Wikipedia reports that Adams later faced an acquittal in Colorado.¹⁴

Person	Proceeding	Outcome
William D. Haywood	Tried in Boise, 1907	Acquitted July 29, 1907
George A. Pettibone	Tried separately	Acquitted, January 1908
Charles H. Moyer	Charged with the other two	Charges dropped, January 1908
Steve Adams	Tried February 1907	Hung jury; later Colorado acquittal per Wikipedia
Harry Orchard	Confessed 1906; pleaded guilty	Sentenced to death March 1908; commuted to life; died April 13, 1954

Source for the table: Famous Trials chronology and Wikipedia's Harry Orchard article. The acquittals and dismissals are as much a part of the record as the accusations.

What the verdict proves, and what it does not

An acquittal means the state failed to prove its case to a jury beyond a reasonable doubt. It does not prove that the accused were innocent, and it does not prove that Orchard acted alone. Historian Katherine Aiken, quoted in the Post Register account, said there was "some suggestion" that mine company people might have paid Orchard and others; the same article calls him a paid informer of the Mine Owners Association.¹ No document confirming that Orchard was in the owners' pay was found for this lesson, so that remains a suggestion, not a finding. Orchard was sentenced to death in March 1908, the sentence was commuted to life, and he reaffirmed his confession in a 1952 book, Harry Orchard, the Man God Made Again, and died on April 13, 1954, at 88.¹⁴ A careful reporter, or a careful student, can say all of that and still stop at the same place the sources do: the question of who ordered the bomb is not settled by the verdict.

In their own words and in the record

This history was written by people on every side of it, and each had a stake. The items below are sorted by who wrote them, with the stance named, the date given and a note on whether the source was read in full, read through a summary, or only seen listed. Where a quotation appears it is short and verified in the source named. Nothing here was invented to fill a gap; gaps are stated.

Harry Orchard, in his own words (adverse to the union; edited under state supervision)

The Confessions and Autobiography of Harry Orchard appeared in 1907 (a scan is on archive.org, and a PDF is in the University of Minnesota Darrow collection). The research read it through chapter VII. Orchard says he joined the union at the Tiger-Poorman mine in March 1899; that in April 1899 he carried dynamite and lit a fuse in the Bunker Hill boiler room; and that he then fled to Montana and Utah. On the Cripple Creek period he says union leaders acted on "advice, and you might say orders, from Moyer and Haywood" (chapter V).¹⁵ The preface is by Edwin S. Hinks, dean of the Boise cathedral, who presents Orchard as repentant and cites the Harvard psychologist Munsterberg's view that Orchard was telling the truth.

Treat this as a self-report. It is a confession from a man who faced death, edited and published under conditions friendly to the prosecution, and it names the defendants in the case against them. Chapters XV and XVI, which cover the Steunenberg killing itself, were not read for this lesson, and the claim that Orchard acted on the union's orders is Orchard's, not an independent finding.

The union side and the defense (sympathetic to the accused)

• Haywood's autobiography. Bill Haywood's Book (1929) has a chapter on the Boise trial (chapter 13 in the Finnish edition's list). Haywood's 1918 cross-examination in the Chicago Espionage Act trial and other writings are posted on the Marxists Internet Archive. None of the texts was opened for this lesson; the book is catalogued by citation only.¹⁶
• Clarence Darrow. The Story of My Life (1932) devotes chapters 16 to 19 to the case: "Skeleton in the Forest," "Athens of the Sage-Brush," "The Haywood Trial" and "Still Rattling the Skeleton." Only the chapter titles were seen. Darrow is the defense lawyer telling his own story, so the book is a defense-side account.¹⁷
• May Arkwright Hutton. Hutton, whose husband was among the jailed miners, published The Coeur d'Alenes: A Tale of the Modern Inquisition in Idaho (1900) with photographs of the Wardner bull pen. Gaboury cites it; the text was not located.³
• Mary "Mother" Jones. Her 1925 autobiography describes the bull pen. It was not opened; it is known here through a Hellraisers Journal citation.¹⁰
• Union newspapers. The Railroad Telegrapher (April 1900) is described above. Emma Langdon's Labor's Greatest Conflicts (1908) is the union-side history of the period; it is known here only from a bibliography.

The owners, the state and the detectives

• Charles Siringo. A Cowboy Detective (1912) and The Two Evil Isms (1915) are the spy's own account. Neither book was opened for this lesson.
• Morris Friedman. The Pinkerton Labor Spy (1907) was written by McParland's stenographer, who turned critic of the agency. It is listed on the Darrow collection page; the text was not located.¹²
• Fremont Wood. The trial judge wrote an introductory chapter for the history of the trials (1931), posted on archive.org. It was not opened, and its copyright status is unconfirmed, so it is not copied.
• Thomas Rickard. The Bunker Hill Enterprise (1921) is a company-side history, known here only through Wikipedia's bibliography.
• Bartlett Sinclair. Steunenberg's personal representative in Shoshone County praised the permit-system physician in 1909 (described above).
• McParland's own reports. The Pinkerton agency's letters from 1906 and 1907 are shown in the Darrow collection; McParland's own report on the Orchard interview was not located.

Government and court records

• House Report 1, 56th Congress, 1st session (1900) and the committee hearings of February 20 to May 8, 1900, described above. Volumes of testimony from union men, soldiers and owners are cited by Hellraisers Journal; the direct links were not obtained.⁹
• Pettibone v. Nichols, 203 U.S. 192 (1906) and Moyer v. Nichols, 203 U.S. 221 (1906). Texts are on Justia, the Library of Congress and law.resource.org; they were listed but not read. Ex parte Moyer, 12 Idaho 250 (1906), the Idaho Supreme Court's opinion, is listed on the Darrow page; its text was not located.¹¹
• The 1907 trial transcripts. Eleven volumes (June 4 to July 30, 1907) are posted by the University of Minnesota Law Library's Clarence Darrow Digital Collection, courtesy of the Western Federation of Miners papers in Colorado. They are the primary source on Orchard's testimony and the closings, and they have not yet been read for this module. The collection page carries no license statement visible, so no copies are bundled.¹²
• Idaho session laws on the Steunenberg case (1907, reward and prosecution acts), a PDF in the Darrow collection, not opened.

Newspapers of the time

• The Coeur d'Alene Press, July 16, 23 and 30, 1892 (Chronicling America), for the 1892 fighting.
• The Morning Oregonian, June 19, 1907, page 5, for the cross-examination of Orchard (read through a summary).¹³
• A Colorado newspaper of August 1, 1907 carries the headline "'Not Guilty': William D. Haywood, Accused Murderer, a Free Man"; only the headline was seen.
• The Caldwell Tribune, the Boise Evening Capital News and the Wallace Miner (a Republican mining-district weekly from 1907) are on Chronicling America for local reaction. The Library of Congress also keeps topic guides to the Coeur d'Alene mining insurrection and the Haywood trial.

The books written afterward

Work	Author and year	Type and stance	Read for this lesson?
"From Statehouse to Bull Pen: Idaho Populism and the Coeur d'Alene Troubles of the 1890s," Pacific Northwest Quarterly	William J. Gaboury, 1967	Scholarly article; neutral. Concludes that both sides erred	Excerpt read (Idaho State University digital atlas)
"Shoot-Out in Burke Canyon," American Heritage	Earl Clark, 1971	Popular history; neutral	Read
Big Trouble	J. Anthony Lukas, 1997	Narrative history; neutral	No; known from citations
We Shall Be All; Hard Rock Epic; Roughneck	Dubofsky, 1969; Wyman, 1979; Carlson, 1983	Scholarly histories	No; known from citations
Labor's Greatest Conflicts	Emma Langdon, 1908	Union side	No; known from a bibliography
The Bunker Hill Enterprise	Thomas Rickard, 1921	Company side	No; known from a bibliography

The copyrighted books are catalogued by citation and are not reproduced. Gaboury's conclusion that both sides erred is a scholar's judgment and fits the record in this lesson: real violence by union members at Wardner, and real abuse of detention and force by the state.

People and personalities

The profiles use only what the sources gathered support. Several figures were witnesses with reasons to shade the truth; the list says so. No person here is described as guilty beyond what a court found. Haywood, Pettibone and Moyer were acquitted or released, and that stays in front of the reader.

William D. "Big Bill" Haywood (1869 to 1928)

Secretary-treasurer of the Western Federation of Miners and later a leader of the IWW. Orchard named him; Idaho officials seized him in Denver on February 17, 1906; he ran for governor of Colorado as a Socialist in 1906 while jailed in Idaho; and he was acquitted on July 29, 1907. He was convicted in Chicago in 1918 in the Espionage Act case, fled to Russia in 1921 while free on bail, and died in Moscow in 1928 (Famous Trials and Wikipedia). Orchard says Moyer and Haywood effectively directed events at Cripple Creek; that is Orchard's statement, from an adverse witness.

Harry Orchard (Albert E. Horsley, 1866 to 1954)

Born in Ontario, came to the Coeur d'Alene district in 1897, joined the union in 1899, and confessed to McParland in 1906. He pleaded guilty, was sentenced to death in March 1908, and the sentence was commuted. He became a Seventh-day Adventist, served more than 46 years, lived as a trusty outside the prison walls tending poultry, and died in Boise on April 13, 1954 (Wikipedia, citing his 1907 book and Lukas). Dean Hinks vouched for him; skeptics noted the state supplied his religious tracts. Wikipedia reports that observers said his testimony turned into a story of repentance, religion and God's mercy.

Frank Steunenberg (governor, 1897 to 1901)

Called for federal troops in April 1899. Killed by the gate bomb in Caldwell on December 30, 1905; he died about an hour later (Famous Trials). Bartlett Sinclair was his personal representative in Shoshone County in 1899.

James McParland

The Pinkerton detective hired by Idaho on January 7, 1906. He met Orchard on January 22 and suggested leniency in exchange for names. Morris Friedman, his stenographer, later criticized his methods in a 1907 book.

William E. Borah, James H. Hawley, Edmund F. Richardson, Clarence Darrow

Borah prosecuted at Boise in 1907, and Hawley led the state's team and tried Adams in February 1907. Darrow agreed in December 1906 to defend Haywood, Moyer and Pettibone; Richardson was co-counsel. Darrow defended Steve Adams against Hawley and won a hung jury.

George A. Pettibone and Charles H. Moyer

Pettibone, the Gem justice of the peace and first president of the Gem miners' union, was convicted in 1892 and served eight months, then was acquitted in January 1908. Moyer, president of the Western Federation of Miners, saw the charges against him dropped that month.

Edward Boyce

President of the Western Federation of Miners in 1899. Steunenberg charged him with conspiracy over Wardner; he denied it. Orchard later claimed Boyce approved the attack (Gaboury). No court found it.

Gov. Norman Willey and Gov. Frank Steunenberg

Each used martial law and federal troops in the Silver Valley, in 1892 and 1899. In 1892 Willey sent an Inspector General, James Curtis, who removed the sheriff and appointed a company doctor, according to the ISU digital atlas excerpt (single-source).

Charles Siringo

Pinkerton operative who served as recording secretary of the Gem union in 1892 and reported to owners. He later wrote against the agency. Historians read his account as an insider's view, with the bias that implies.

Sheriff James D. Young, William Boyle and William Stimson

A Populist sheriff and two commissioners, arrested and removed from office after the Wardner mill raid (Gaboury). Gaboury treats their removal as part of the state's response to the Wardner raid.

May Arkwright Hutton, Morris Friedman, Edwin S. Hinks, Fremont Wood, Dr. Hugh France

Hutton wrote and photographed the bull pen; Friedman was McParland's stenographer turned critic; Hinks, dean of the Boise cathedral, wrote the preface to Orchard's book; Wood was the trial judge and wrote a 1931 introduction; France was the physician who ran the permit system.

Army officers in the 1900 inquiry

Gen. H. C. Merriam, Capt. Edwards and Capt. Edwin Leavell are named in House Report 1; their testimony has not been read for this lesson.

Why this belongs in a module about Socialists, Communists and Nazis

Haywood is the thread. The Post Register account notes that he went on to help lead the Industrial Workers of the World, the "Wobblies," and that after prosecution under the Espionage Act for opposing World War I he fled to Russia in 1921.¹ That one career links the Idaho mine wars to the Wobbly lumber strike of 1917 (lesson 3) and to the Russian Revolution that created the Communist movement (lesson 4). It also set up the argument that runs through the whole module: one side saw a radical conspiracy that required martial law, and the other saw an employer conspiracy that used spies, blacklists and troops. The records show real violence by union members at Wardner and real abuse of detention and force by the state. Both statements are in the sources.

This lesson's reading, which the sources support but do not state in these words, is that the label "radical" became a political weapon in Idaho early. The next lessons test that reading against Socialists in 1912, Wobblies in 1917, a Democratic senator in 1948 and neo-Nazis in the 1980s.

Source notes for reporters

• Primary: court records of the 1907 trials; Idaho National Guard and governors' papers at the Idaho State Archives; Senate documents on martial law in the Coeur d'Alene district. The 1907 transcripts and House Report 1 are named in the record section above; neither has been fully read for this lesson.
• Secondary used here: an Idaho Post Register labor-history article and the Wikipedia article on Frank Steunenberg. The Wikipedia summary dates the arrest of Haywood, Moyer and Pettibone to February 1908 while giving 1907 trial dates; that is an error. Douglas Linder's Famous Trials chronology gives February 17, 1906, and this lesson uses that date.
• Do not write: that the Western Federation of Miners "was" the Socialist Party or the IWW. Haywood belonged to more than one organization over time, and the sources used here do not say that the union itself was socialist.

Learn more

• Idaho State Historical Society: Starting point for the state's archives on the mining wars and the governors' papers.
• Chronicling America (Library of Congress): Free digitized newspapers; search 1892, 1899 and 1905-1907 coverage of the strikes and the Haywood trial.
• Frank Steunenberg: A starting summary; follow its footnotes to the trial record and to Aiken's scholarship.
• Famous Trials, chronology of the Haywood trial: Douglas Linder's dated sequence, with links to summations.
• Clarence Darrow Digital Collection, Haywood trial: The transcript volumes, Ex parte Moyer and Pinkerton letters.
• Idaho State University digital atlas, mine wars: An excerpt of Gaboury's 1967 article.

Notes

1. "Idaho unions: A history of conflict," Idaho Post Register, on the 1890s Populists, the 1892 and 1899 Coeur d'Alene conflicts, the 1905 assassination, Aiken's view of Orchard, Haywood and the IWW, and later union decline. Read it online. ↩
2. Idaho State Historical Society, Reference Series No. 17, United States Senators from Idaho (rev. May 1993), entry for Henry Heitfeld. Read it online. ↩
3. William J. Gaboury, "From Statehouse to Bull Pen: Idaho Populism and the Coeur d'Alene Troubles of the 1890s," Pacific Northwest Quarterly, 1967, excerpt in the Idaho State University digital atlas. Read it online. Scholarly article; the excerpt was read, not the whole article. ↩
4. Earl Clark, "Shoot-Out in Burke Canyon," American Heritage, 1971. Read it online. Popular history; the Borah detail is single-source. ↩
5. "1892 Coeur d'Alene labor strike," Wikipedia. Read it online. Used for bibliography leads and where it agrees with other sources. ↩
6. "Frank Steunenberg," Wikipedia, on the 1899 Bunker Hill martial law, the December 30, 1905 assassination, Orchard's confession and the 1907 trials of Haywood and Pettibone. Read it online. Check trial details against the 1907 court record before quoting. ↩
7. Douglas O. Linder, "Chronology of Events Relating to the Haywood Trial," Famous Trials. Read it online. Secondary; key dates should be checked against primary pages. ↩
8. Bartlett Sinclair, "Idaho Owes Dr. Hugh France Much for Services During...," Spokesman-Review, October 31, 1909, as listed in the University of Idaho Transitions reprint index. Read it online. Headline only; the text was not read. ↩
9. Coeur d'Alene Labor Troubles, H. Rept. 1, 56th Cong., 1st Sess. (1900), House Committee on Military Affairs. Read it online. Read through a summary because the scan is garbled; the file name says 1999 but the document is from 1900. Verify every quotation against the PDF. ↩
10. "Idaho's Disgrace," The Railroad Telegrapher, April 1900, as reprinted and summarized by Hellraisers Journal. Read it online. Union advocacy; the claims are unverified. ↩
11. Pettibone v. Nichols, 203 U.S. 192 (1906). Read it online. The opinion text was not read; the vote and date come from Famous Trials. ↩
12. "Bill Haywood Trial," Clarence Darrow Digital Collection, University of Minnesota Law Library. Read it online. Hub for the transcript volumes and related documents. ↩
13. Morning Oregonian, June 19, 1907, page 5. Read it online. Read through a summary. ↩
14. "Harry Orchard," Wikipedia, on his guilty plea, sentence, conversion, 1952 book and death. Read it online. Secondary; cites his 1907 book and Lukas. ↩
15. Harry Orchard, The Confessions and Autobiography of Harry Orchard (1907), archive.org scan. Read it online. Read through chapter VII. A self-report by a witness for the prosecution. ↩
16. William D. Haywood Archive, Marxists Internet Archive, including the 1918 cross-examination. Read it online. Index read; the texts were not opened. ↩
17. Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life (1932), table of contents. Read it online. Chapter titles only. US copyright status of the text is unconfirmed here. ↩